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a.k.a. Epistemology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_justification

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gettier_problem

In philosophy, empiricism is a theory of knowledge which opposes other theories of knowledge, such as rationalism, idealism and historicism. Empiricism asserts that knowledge comes (only or primarily) via sensory experience as opposed to rationalism which asserts that knowledge comes (also) from pure thinking.

Empiricism is generally a theory of knowledge emphasizing the role of experience, especially experience based on perceptual observations by the senses. Certain forms treat all knowledge as empirical,[citation needed] while some regard disciplines such as mathematics and logic as exceptions.[citation needed]

There are many variants of empiricism, positivism and realism being among the most commonly expounded but central to all empiricist epistemologies is the notion of the epistemologically privileged status of sense data.

Idealists believe that knowledge is primarily (at least in some areas) acquired by a priori processes or is innate—for example, in the form of concepts not derived from experience. The relevant theoretical processes often go by the name "intuition".[citation needed] The relevant theoretical concepts may purportedly be part of the structure of the human mind (as in Kant's theory of transcendental idealism), or they may be said to exist independently of the mind (as in Plato's theory of Forms).

The extent to which this innate human knowledge is emphasized over experience as a means to acquire knowledge varies from idealist to idealist. Some hold that knowledge of any kind can only be gained a priori,[citation needed] while others claim that some knowledge can also be gained a posteriori.[citation needed] Consequently, the borderline between idealist epistemologies and others can be vague.

The main concept, however, central to all idealist epistemologies is the centrality of Reason: (i.e.: 'Reason' with a capital 'R'): a priori Reason: Knowledge can only be, ultimately, a product of the mind and is therefore, by definition, 'ideal'. Ie: What is 'known' is, by definition, 'ideal'.

By contrast with empiricism and idealism, which emphasize the epistemologically privileged status of sense data (empirical) and the primacy of Reason (theoretical) respectively, modern rationalism adds a third 'system of thinking', as Gaston Bachelard has termed these areas and holds that all three are of equal importance: The empirical, the theoretical and the abstract. Rationalism makes equal reference to all three systems of thinking.

An example of abstract thinking is Pythagoras' concept of 'pure' geometric forms: perfect triangles, squares, circles. Etc. Another example is imaginary numbers, in mathematics.

(See, esp. Scientific Rationalism (article needed) intended by its authors, Bachelard, Louis Althusser, Dominique Lecourt etc. as an attempt to walk the narrow tightrope between these two opposing dogmas of empiricism and idealism).

Constructivism is a view in philosophy according to which all knowledge is "constructed" in as much as it is contingent on convention, human perception, and social experience.[citation needed] Constructivism proposes new definitions for knowledge and truth that form a new paradigm, based on inter-subjectivity instead of the classical objectivity, and on viability instead of truth. Piagetian constructivism, however, believes in objectivity—constructs can be validated through experimentation. The constructivist point of view is pragmatic; as Vico said: "The norm of the truth is to have made it."

It originated in sociology under the term "social constructionism" and has been given the name "constructivism" when referring to philosophical epistemology, though "constructionism" and "constructivism" are often used interchangeably.[citation needed] Constructivism has also emerged in the field of International Relations, where the writings of Alexander Wendt are popular. Describing the characteristic nature of International reality marked by 'anarchy' he says, "Anarchy is what states make of it."

Critical rationalism is an epistemological philosophy advanced by Karl Popper. Popper wrote about critical rationalism in his works, The Open Society and its Enemies Volume 2, and Conjectures and Refutations.

Critical rationalists hold that scientific theories, and any other claims to knowledge, can and should be rationally criticized, and (if they have empirical content) can and should be subjected to tests which may falsify them.

Critical rationalism rejects the classical position that knowledge is justified true belief; it instead holds the exact opposite: That, in general, knowledge is unjustified untrue unbelief. It is unjustified because of the non-existence of good reasons. It is untrue, because it usually contains errors that sometimes remain unnoticed for hundreds of years. And it is not belief either, because scientific knowledge, or the knowledge needed to build a plane, is contained in no single person's mind. It is only available as the content of books.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundationalism

(The impression of) knowledge seems to come from the sense of certainty associated with information.

The Awareness receive information.

The Focus Of Awareness sets The Boundary of incoming information.

Sensory, emotional, and mental information (possibly among others) can be noticed by awareness. For the awareness, everything is information.

Information may generate emotional reaction, which produces secondary information of positive or negative nature and of varied degree.

Information may generate mental reaction, which may pull chains of associated memories that may generate emotional and/or mental reaction, in turn.

Information/signal of higher density/strength may capture the focus of awareness and occupy the field of awareness (for the moment).

This produces the impression that the entire world (the field of awareness) is filled with the information/signal and that the information/signal IS the world.

This impression causes the information/signal to be taken as The Absolute (for the moment) and causes the sense of The Certainty and The Reality about it.

And the information accompanied with the sense of certainty/reality (or the memory of the certainty) seems to be considered as knowledge by many of us.

So, This perspective doesn't give special (and/or glorified) status to the knowledge, as it's just an information/memory with stronger impression attached.

And some people try to reproduce this "stronger impression" by evoking The Truth, justification, and whatever the theory that may help them.

It's a little similar to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallibilism in the sense it doesn't require/idolize the certainty.


Last modified : Fri Nov 25 05:02:05 2011